The conference, which took place at the German Historical Institute in Rome, offered a wide range of insights into various topics relevant to the study of old age in premodern times. The chronological frame extended from Antiquity to the Early Modern period with a special emphasis on the Middle Ages as a period which has not yet received the same degree of attention as others. As CHRISTIAN A. NEUMANN (Rome) explained in his introduction, old age has been analyzed from the point of view of many different disciplines. Gerontology has been opening itself up to the humanities over the last decades, and these, in turn, have been treating old age more intensively. Nevertheless, inter- and transdisciplinary perspectives are still widely lacking. Against this background, the conference pursued three main aims: (1) strengthening “old age” and “age” as autonomous categories of analysis, (2) discussing “gerontological medievistics” as a heuristic concept which can be understood as an interdisciplinary entanglement between gerontology and medieval studies by the application of gerontological theories, approaches, concepts and questions to historical topics and premodern sources, and (3) initiating or fostering the exchange between gerontology and the humanities, between different disciplines that are relevant to the topic, and within the single disciplines.
The first section tried to evaluate the potential theoretical and methodological perspectives gerontology might have for the humanities. HANS-WERNER WAHL (Heidelberg) gave an overview on geropsychology which concentrates on individuals and their development. In order to fully understand the phase of old age one has to take the whole life course into account. By means of a tripartite contextual approach he explained that subjective perceptions of ageing change over time. Further relevant aspects of analysis are cognitive functions, personality, wisdom, social relationships and coping with critical life situations. One central idea was that not only loss and increasing vulnerability should be considered, but also gains associated with a longer lifespan. Despite clearly discernible trends, the high level of intra-individual variability always has to be taken into account. Higher longevity does not only imply an increased number of years in good health conditions, but also of longer phases of frailty. In the terminal phase of life the criterion of distance-to-death better explains a decline in personal well-being than distance-from-birth does.
PAUL HIGGS (London) talked about cultural gerontology which has emerged out of mainstream gerontology under the influence of the “cultural turn” underlining the social construction of old age. Cultural gerontology treats topics like the body, gender, fashion, consumption, and care. Corporeality and self-conception are important aspects of identity. Through the introduction of pension systems in the context of nation states, industrialisation and urbanisation, retirement was established as a life stage in its own right and intended to be a reward for a long working life. Due to increased life expectancy and added healthy years, old age ceased to be a residual phase of life. Thus a “Third Age” of intensive and self-determined activity has emerged as a desired goal in modern societies, whereas weakness and dependence are feared as a “Fourth Age”.
MARY HARLOW (Leicester) outlined a wide panorama of old age in ancient Rome with an emphasis on a gender perspective. Considering the old age of women is relatively difficult because usually only men appear as actors and authors. Only few traces of women beyond childbearing age have come down to us. The sources, both written and material, reveal primarily an external perception. The different stages of life were connected with specific characteristics and social conduct. When behaving contrary to these norms, old men or women risked being scorned. Negative views on old age clearly prevailed, but positive ones can also be found, focusing on aspects such as experience, wisdom and gravitas.
The second section analyzed old age in the context of intergenerational relationships from the angles of different disciplines. HARTWIN BRANDT (Bamberg) focused on the question of whether the crisis of the late Roman Republic can be seen as the manifestation of a generational conflict. Before entering into the case study, he explained some key concepts of generational research. Late Republican literature draws the image of a rebellious youth revolting against the established authority of the elderly. The actual problems were, in fact, much more complex. The description of the conflict in these generalizing terms served rather as an interpretative pattern to stabilize and legitimize the power of the older generation and to conceal their deficiencies and failures.
LIDIA VITALE (Rome) dealt with the human life cycle from the perspective of osteoarchaeology. While ageing, the human skeleton shows some characteristic differences between the stages of life. Old age is marked by degenerative processes. Insights into the analytical methods for determining the age-at-death and the multitude of factors that leave their marks on the skeletal remains such as environment, lifestyle and activity were given. As Vitale underlined, the age-at-death can be determined with a much higher degree of certainty for children and young people since the stages of physical development until adulthood reflect quite regular changes, whereas deformations of the skeletons of elderly individuals are much more individual. Osteoarchaeology is fundamentally important when written sources are absent or scant.
Departing from insights on the social construction of childhood which Philippe Ariès had obtained in the 1960s, MONICA FERRARI (Pavia) examined mirrors for princes, reports and diaries from courts in Renaissance Italy and Early Modern France. Analysing childhood is important for old age studies as the stages of life are often modelled on each other. Royal and noble children were supposed to deny their childhood and to reach adulthood, at least mentally, as early as possible. The ideal to follow was the puer senex, and various educational measures were employed to achieve this goal. The teachers, being dependent on the ruler, had the task of taming the ferociousness of their pupils who, lacking good judgement, were expected to obey. This holds especially true for a child king whose inexperience could endanger the stability of his realm.
LUCIANA REPICI (Turin) focused on Aristotle's conception of old age as a ‘natural illness' that affects all living beings. Everything grows, ages and passes away so that an individual cannot attain eternity. The immortality of a species, on the contrary, can be reached by way of reproduction. The ageing process is conceived as a gradual decline. The human body's vital inner heat gradually extinguishes so that the body gets colder and drier. Physical changes and psychological changes are inextricably combined and physis is thus considered to influence behaviour. Aristotle regards the middle years as the prime of life which show neither deficits nor decline. Middle-aged people are presumed to be the most suitable office holders in the polis.
The third section dealt with old age from the angles of different disciplines. SONJA KERTH (Bremen) examined the role of elderly figures in medieval German courtly romances from the perspective of literary disability history. Although older characters do not appear as central characters, they are part of complex situations that highlight the deeds of the young protagonists. Kerth’s analysis tackled various aspects related to old age such as intergenerational relationships, succession, gender, the wisdom of the elderly and the physical strength of the young. From the case studies, ‘Eneas', ‘Erec', and ‘Iwein', a primarily negative representation of old age became evident as it was associated with weakness, impairment, and ugliness. However, old age is not depicted as a period of extreme frailty. Despite this primarily negative picture, positive attributes like experience and authority also appear.
DANIEL SCHÄFER (Cologne) explored the extent to which late medieval medicine was concerned with matters of old age and pointed out the changes that came about during the Renaissance, though the roots of “protogeriatrics” go back to antiquity. Starting in the 11th century medical knowledge of the Latin West was considerably enhanced by the reception of Islamic and Greek texts (esp. Galen). Later on, the complete translation of the Aristotelian natural philosophy gave further incentives. From the 13th century the regimina sanitatis and above all the specialized regimina senum contain dietetic rules for the elderly in order to maintain youth as long as possible. Gabriele Zerbi's “Gerontocomia” was the first printed and most systematic medical treatise on the care of the elderly, incorporating both medieval scholastic and ancient knowledge.
KATHRIN LIESS (Munich) offered a broad overview of the various aspects of old age in the Old Testament by distinguishing between age classifications, physiology, and social relations. The extremely advanced age of numerous people in the Genesis raises them to a mythical level and often reveals numerical symbolism. In more realistic terms, an advanced age could be seen as a divine gift and white hair as a sign of wisdom and dignity. Therefore, younger people are repeatedly exhorted to honour the elderly and listen to their counsel. Wisdom might also be found in some young people being blessed by God. On the contrary, old age is also described as a time of weakness and sorrow.
The fourth section was entirely dedicated to medieval studies. THIJS PORCK (Leiden) dealt with the early medieval Old English epic poem “Beowulf” which has always been interpreted as giving a model of behaviour for young warriors. Porck revised this perception by regarding it as a mirror for aged kings as elderly characters play a central role in the text. The anonymous author was well aware of the political problems of aged rulers, above all their growing passivity and weakness. Hrothgar and the old Beowulf are juxtaposed, one being passive, the other active. A linguistic analysis makes it possible to date the poem to eighth-century Mercia. For this reason, the long-reigning King Offa might be its patron.
Medicine and physicians at the Sicilian court were the focus of DANIELA SANTORO's (Palermo) paper. Through an analysis of written and material sources she explained the measures that were undertaken to preserve the health of rulers for the benefit of their realm, and some Sicilian kings indeed reached senectus. In order to live a healthy old age, however, measures had to be taken early on in youth or the middle years. Many of the doctors the Sicilian kings had in their service, especially Arnau de Vilanova, were eager to achieve a prolongatio vitae by employing also alchemical methods. Apart from counsel on food and drink, the regimina sanitatis stress the role of psychological health and environmental factors.
The final lecture was given by JOSÉ MIGUEL ANDRADE CERNADAS (Santiago de Compostela) who examined intergenerational relationships in the monasteries of Galicia in north-western Spain from the Early Middle Ages to the 13th century. People of different generations used to live together, thus creating quite heterogeneous communities. Monastic rules provide normative information on behaviour. They were not based on age, but did deal with it when they allowed alleviations for children and elderly people for instance. The textual evidence suggests that the elderly claimed the role of teachers and leaders. It was a widespread practice for lay elderly people with certain economic means to enter a monastery later in their lives in order to be cared for.
In general, the conference showed that there was a fundamental consensus among the participants that the threefold exchange proposed by the conference proved to be innovative and fruitful. From the point of view of gerontology, considering the premodern era and a historical dimension in general might serve to evaluate theories, concepts and findings for their overall validity and to reveal if they are time-bound. An interdisciplinary entanglement certainly has to deal with certain limitations and the available premodern sources do not allow some lines of inquiry well-established in contemporary gerontology, but a critical and deliberate application was considered to have high innovative potential. From the point of view of the humanities and medieval studies in particular, the integration of gerontological theories, concepts and questions opens new perspectives otherwise neglected and invites a more intensive theorizing of empirical findings. Taking the different stages of human development into account might contribute to a deeper understanding of the behaviour of historical actors.
Conference overview:
Welcome:
Alexander Koller (Rome)
Introduction:
Christian A. Neumann (Rome)
Session I - Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives of Gerontology for the Humanities
Chair: Christian A. Neumann (Rome)
Hans-Werner Wahl (Heidelberg): Understanding Aging from a Psychological Point of View: Gains and Losses Go Hand in Hand
Paul Higgs (London): Cultural Gerontology
Mary Harlow (Leicester): Growing Old in Rome
Session II - Old Age in the Context of Intergenerational Relationships from the Angles of Different Disciplines
Chair: Kordula Wolf (Rome)
Hartwin Brandt (Bamberg): Generation Conflicts and the Crisis of the Late Roman Republic. Remarks on Sallust and Cicero
Lidia Vitale (Rome): The Life Cycle: Age from the Perspective of Human Osteoarchaeology
Monica Ferrari (Pavia): Feelings of the Stages of Life: the Education of Princes in the Modern Era as a Privileged Observation Point
Luciana Repici (Torino): Aristotle’s Philosophical Reflections on Old Age
Session III - Old Age Seen from the Perspectives of Different Disciplines
Chair: Luisa Valente (Rome/Sapienza)
Sonja Kerth (Bremen): ein krücke was sîn stiure [A crutch supported him]. Literary Perspectives on Old Age and Disability in Medieval Courtly Romances ('Eneas', 'Erec', 'Iwein')
Daniel Schäfer (Cologne/Köln): (Proto-) Geriatrics – a Subdiscipline of Late Medieval Medicine under the Banner of Humanism?
Kathrin Liess (München): Perspectives on Old Age in the Old Testament
Session IV - Medievalist Views on Old Age
Chair: Sebastian Kolditz (Roma-Heidelberg)
Thijs Porck (Leiden): Old Age and Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: “Beowulf” as a Mirror for Elderly Kings
Daniela Santoro (Palermo): The Treatment of Old Age at Court: the Kings of Sicily from Roger II to Martin II (Century XII–XV)
José Miguel Andrade Cernadas (Santiago de Compostela): Old Age and Generations in Monastic Communities