The burgeoning field of environmental history has contributed to the study of Ottoman history by providing new perspectives that had previously been neglected. Researchers of Ottoman environmental history claim that by studying environmental history, the Ottoman Empire can be seen not only as a human creation but also a living organism comprised of humans, animals, plants, etc. Therefore, analysing Ottoman history requires an examination of both Ottoman human society and the complex interactions between humans and their natural environment. In their introduction, the editors Onur İnal and Yavuz Köse associate the longevity of the Ottoman Empire with its ability to control, manipulate and mobilise its financial, natural and human resources, thereby drawing attention to the rich natural resources possessed by the Ottoman Empire. In this regard, the editors suggest analysing the Ottoman Empire as an ecosystem or as a series of ecological relationships in order to be able to see how the Ottomans interacted with living and non-living components of the environment.
The history of the Ottoman Empire not only provides many rich and previously undiscovered sources concerning environmental history, but the geographic variety of the empire also has much to offer with regard to environmental issues. The editors highlight how this diversity stretched from the snow-covered mountains of Eastern Anatolia and sweltering deserts of Libya to the forests of Montenegro and fertile river deltas of Mesopotamia.
Seeds of Power is an essential contribution to the environmental history of the Ottoman Empire. The idea for this edited volume originated at the “Environmental History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey” workshop, which took place in Hamburg in 2017. Alan Mikhail, who authored one of the pioneering works in this field 1, wrote a foreword for this book. The editors note that the aim of the book is to raise questions and seek new answers to old questions about the ways that Ottomans interacted with their natural environment through time. The editors regard the essays in the book as vital contributions to solving the puzzle that is Ottoman environmental history. As may be expected from such a volume, the different contributions do not solely explore environmental subjects, since these issues were often interwoven with economic, social and political matters. Hence, the contributions cover topics such as economic concerns around rice production, wages in agriculture, social tensions, and more. The editors also highlight the geographical diversity of the Ottoman Empire by including essays on the Balkans, Istanbul, Cyprus, Suez Canal and Anatolia.
Seeds of Power is comprised of eleven essays arranged under four categories: (i) Climate and Landscapes, (ii) Resources and Energies, (iii) Technologies and Infrastructures, and (iv) Ideas and Actors.
The first part is concerned with both the effects of the “Little Ice Age,” and grape and wine production on the Bosporus in the eighteenth century. The second part discusses fig and raisin production, forestry and buffaloes in Western Anatolia, and water management issues in seventeenth century Cyprus. The third part engages with villagers, engineers and animals along the Terkos waterworks, and malaria-related issues in Ismailia and Port Said. The fourth part explores debates around rice, the traces of Alexander von Humboldt in the late Ottoman Empire, and forest commons.
As the editors themselves state, the book does not aim to cover all aspects of Ottoman environmental history. However, it successfully adds to the existing literature in the field with its case studies. Some essays do this more than others. Below I would like to discuss some examples of this sort from the book.
Elias Kolovos’ and Phokion Kotzageorgis’ article “Searching for the ‘Little Ice Age’ Effects in the Ottoman Greek Lands: The Cases of Salonica and Crete” puts Sam White’s main claim in his pioneering work on climate change in the early modern Ottoman Empire 2 to the test. White argues that the Little Ice Age (at the end of sixteenth century and during the seventeenth century) caused droughts and famines in the Ottoman Empire. White also claims there is a strong connection between climate change and social unrest, i.e. the Celali rebellions in Ottoman Anatolia, which resulted in the flight of the population from the countryside of the Anatolian plateau. Based on tax surveys and local Greek sources, Kolovos and Kotzageorgis argue that in their case study (i.e., the peninsula of Halkidiki and the island Crete), White’s assertions about climate change do not apply to the same degree as in Anatolia. Although the effects of the Little Ice Age could also be observed in the Balkans, the results were not as devastating as in Anatolia. The article is an excellent example of how a general hypothesis can be limited by later research based on regional case studies.
Suraiya Faroqhi’s contribution concerning grape and wine production in the eighteenth century is based on the testimony of Italian archaeologist and numismatist Domenico Sestini (1750–1832), who visited Istanbul and left an invaluable record on the cultivation of vineyards on the shores of the Bosporus. Although Sestini’s text contains an incredible amount of information on viticulture and winemaking, he leaves many questions unanswered. Faroqhi tries to provide an answer to the reasons why the vineyards on the shores of the Bosporus disappeared at the end of the nineteenth century by drawing parallels to the disappearance of the vineyards around Paris. Like wine production around Paris, the wine production on the shores of the Bosporus was of mediocre quality. Through the advent of cheaper transportation facilities, the wines of Languedoc for Parisians and the wines of western Anatolia or even southern Thrace for Istanbulites became more attractive. This chapter not only explores environmental aspects of the vineyards but also economic and social issues.
Two articles in the book deal with the prevention of malaria. Mohamed Gamal-Eldin discusses malaria-related issues in his article entitled “Cesspools, Mosquitoes and Fever: An Environmental History of Malaria Prevention in Ismailia and Port Said, 1869-1910” and Chris Gratien in his article “The Rice Debates: Political Ecology in the Ottoman Parliament.” Both chapters emphasize human factors, rather than the environment, as the cause of malaria. Based on the case study of Ismailia and Port Said, two cities created during the construction of the Suez Canal, Gamal-Eldin argues that the creation of stagnant water pools was the main cause of the extraordinary breeding of mosquitoes which led to the spread of malaria. Gratien investigates malaria-related discussions concerning the rice cultivation law of 1910, which were accompanied by heated discussions in the Ottoman parliament. The law regulated how rice should be cultivated without causing spread of malaria.
In summary, the main strength of the book lies in its emphasis that the Ottoman Empire should be seen not only as a human-made assemblage but rather a living organism comprising of humans and living and non-living environment. To what extent this new aspect will be welcomed in mainstream Ottoman studies is still an open question. The flourishing tendency in environmental studies gives hope to the incorporation of environmental aspects within Ottoman studies.
Notes
1 Alan Mikhail, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental History, Cambridge 2013.
2 Sam White, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire, Cambridge 2011.